“The Pinnacle of Thought: Raphael’s Intellectual Pantheon”

Federico II of Mantua

Federico II of Gonzaga, also known as Federico II of Mantua, was born on May 17, 1500, and ruled the Italian city of Mantua from 1519 until his death on August 28, 1540. He was the son of Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua, and Isabella d’Este. Federico’s early life was marked by political turmoil, including being held as a hostage in Rome under Pope Julius II at the age of ten and later as a hostage of King Francis I of France from 1515 to 1517.

In April 1519, Federico succeeded his father as Marquis of Mantua under the regency of his mother and uncles. He received the imperial investiture from Emperor Charles V in 1521 and was appointed Captain General of the Church by Pope Leo X. Federico engaged in military conflicts against the French at Parma in 1521 and Piacenza in 1522.

Federico’s marital alliances played a significant role in his reign. Initially betrothed to Maria Palaeologina to acquire the Marquisate of Monteferrat, the marriage contract was voided by Pope Clement VII. Subsequently, he married Maria’s sister Margaret in 1531 after her death. This union secured the Gonzaga family’s control over Monteferrat.

A notable patron of the arts like his parents, Federico commissioned projects such as the Palazzo Te designed by Giulio Romano. He also supported artists like Titian and Raphael, commissioning paintings from them.

Despite his accomplishments, Federico suffered from syphilis, which ultimately led to his death at his villa in Marmirolo in 1540. His son Francesco briefly held the title of Duke of Mantua before passing away in his teens, while Guglielmo succeeded him as the Duke of Mantua and Montferrat.

Epicurus (341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of Epicureanism, a significant school of philosophy in antiquity. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Epicurus established his own philosophical school known as “the Garden” in Athens, where he welcomed both men and women, as well as slaves, which was uncommon for the time.

Anaximander

The Greek philosopher Anaximander was a prominent figure in the early development of philosophy, particularly in the Milesian school. He lived in Miletus during the 6th century BC and was a student of Thales, another influential philosopher of the time. Anaximander’s contributions to various fields such as astronomy, physics, and geography have left a lasting impact on the history of philosophy.

Averroes, also known as Ibn Rushd, was an Andalusian polymath and jurist who made significant contributions to various fields such as philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, mathematics, Islamic jurisprudence and law, and linguistics. He wrote over 100 books and treatises, with his philosophical works focusing on commentaries on Aristotle. Averroes was a staunch proponent of Aristotelianism and defended the pursuit of philosophy within Islam. He argued for the allegorical interpretation of scriptural texts that seemed to contradict reason and philosophy. In the Western world, he became known as The Commentator and Father of Rationalism due to his extensive commentaries on Aristotle that rekindled interest in Greek philosophy in Europe.

Pythagoras was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher, polymath, and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. He was born around 570 BC on the Greek island of Samos and died around 500-490 BC in Metapontum, Italy. Pythagoras is known for his contributions to philosophy, mathematics, and the development of the Pythagorean brotherhood. His teachings influenced prominent philosophers like Plato and Aristotle.

Alexander the Great is famous for his remarkable military conquests and the creation of one of the largest empires in history. He succeeded his father, Philip II, as the king of Macedon at a young age and embarked on an extensive military campaign that spanned Western Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia, and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had established an empire that stretched from Greece to northwestern India. Alexander was undefeated in battle and is widely regarded as one of history’s greatest military commanders due to his strategic brilliance and tactical prowess.

Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher born around 446 BCE, was a pupil of Socrates and is considered one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. He initially studied rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming a devoted follower of Socrates. Antisthenes emphasized the ethical teachings of Socrates, promoting an ascetic lifestyle centered on virtue. He played a significant role in preserving and spreading Socratic ideas, particularly focusing on the practical application of virtue in daily life.

Xenophon of Athens was a prominent figure in ancient Greece, known for his multifaceted talents as a military leader, philosopher, and historian. Born around 430 BC in Athens, Xenophon played a significant role in Greek history through his military exploits, philosophical writings, and historical accounts.

Francesco Maria della Rovere was an Italian condottiero who served as the Duke of Urbino in two separate periods, from 1508 to 1516 and then again from 1521 to 1538. He was born on March 25, 1490, in Senigallia, Italy, to Giovanni della Rovere and Giovanna da Montefeltro. Francesco Maria della Rovere was the nephew of Pope Julius II and became the Duke of Urbino after being named heir by his uncle Guidobaldo I in 1504.

Socrates, a Greek philosopher from Athens (c. 470–399 BC), is considered the founder of Western philosophy and one of the first moral philosophers in the ethical tradition of thought. He did not write any texts himself, so most of what is known about him comes from the accounts of others, primarily his students Plato and Xenophon. These accounts are written as dialogues where Socrates engages in question-and-answer discussions with his interlocutors, giving rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre.

Plato (representing Leonardo da Vinci)

Plato, born around 428 B.C., was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical period. He hailed from a noble Athenian family and became a devoted follower of Socrates during his youth. Plato’s early dialogues, influenced by Socrates’ philosophy and the Socratic method, provide valuable insights into the teachings of his mentor.

Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. He was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, which is located about 55 km east of modern-day Thessaloniki. Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, served as the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. After the death of his parents when he was around thirteen years old, Aristotle was taken under the guardianship of Proxenus of Atarneus.

Diogenes was a Greek philosopher known as Diogenes of Sinope, one of the founders of Cynicism. He lived from around 404 to 323 B.C.E. and was a controversial figure who challenged societal norms and values through his unconventional lifestyle and philosophical beliefs. Diogenes believed in living a simple life, often begging for a living and sleeping in a large ceramic jar in the marketplace. He criticized social institutions and values, declaring himself a citizen of the world rather than aligning with any specific place.

Heraclitus (representing Michelangelo)

Heraclitus was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, known for his paradoxical philosophy and cryptic, oracular epigrams. He is often referred to as “the dark” or “the obscure” due to the enigmatic nature of his writings. Heraclitus believed in the unity of opposites and the concept of constant change, expressing ideas such as “Everything flows” and emphasizing the dynamic nature of reality. He considered fire as the fundamental element (arche) from which all other elements originated and saw the logos as providing structure to the world.

Archimedes with students (representing Bramante)

Archimedes was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. He is considered one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity and is renowned as one of the greatest mathematicians of ancient history.

Zoroaster

Zoroaster, also known as Zarathustra, was a religious reformer and the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. He founded the first documented monotheistic religion in the world around 1000 BC. Zoroaster had a significant impact on various philosophical and religious traditions, including Plato, Pythagoras, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Zoroastrians believe he was a prophet who transmitted messages from God and challenged existing traditions of ancient Iranian religion.

Ptolemy was an Alexandrian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who lived around 100 to 170 AD. He is best known for his significant contributions to various fields of science, particularly his work in astronomy. Ptolemy’s most famous work is the Almagest, a comprehensive ancient treatise on astronomy that presents a geocentric model of the universe known as the Ptolemaic system.

Protogenes (Il Sodoma, Perugino, or Timoteo Viti)
Protogenes was an ancient Greek painter who lived during the 4th century BC. He was a contemporary rival of the renowned painter Apelles. Protogenes was known for his meticulous attention to detail and the time he dedicated to each of his paintings. He resided in Rhodes for most of his life and was celebrated for the intricate finish he applied to his artworks, both in terms of drawing and color.

Plotinus (representing Donatello)

Plotinus was a Greek philosopher born around 205 CE in Roman Egypt. He is considered the founder of Neoplatonism, a philosophical system that had a significant influence during late antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. Plotinus studied under the self-taught philosopher Ammonius Saccas and was deeply influenced by Plato’s teachings. His metaphysical writings focused on three fundamental principles: the One, the Intellect, and the Soul. Plotinus’ works have inspired various philosophical traditions and religious thinkers over centuries.

sculpture of the god Apollo 

Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and mythology. He is recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, among other attributes. Apollo is considered one of the most important and complex of the Greek gods. He is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, the goddess of the hunt. Apollo is often depicted as an ideal kouros – a beardless, athletic youth known for his beauty.

sculpture of Athena

Athena is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft. She was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly Athens, from which she likely received her name. She is symbolized by owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. Athena is typically depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.